Partnerships in Health

Health Care is definitely one of those fields where partnership is integral for growth and sustainabiltiy. Mutually beneficial partnerships allows for individauls to share ideas and learn from each others strengths and weaknesses. Partnerships which exists between two organizaitons is much like relaitonships which exist between two poeple. The relationship requires time, effort communciation and patience. Often times if expectations are not clarified, it causes problems later in the partnership. Partnerships are also key for non profit organizations. Often times non profits face large concerns as many small nonprofits exist which stand for similar goals and obejectivec yet are competing against each other for allocation of funds and resources instead of working together for the greater good of the poeple. This hinders various organizaitons as they get caught up with the challenging funding aspects, and the exponential rise of new nonprofits certainly does not help the cause.
Another challenge faced in parthernship is the allocation of power. If one party controls a greater portion of resoruces this may be a potential cause for a strained relaitonship. Other unfavorable conditions include a partnership where one party is clearly beign taken advantange of, the orgnaizations within the partnership are not clear and upfront of their goals and ideals and so forth.
But with more partnership in the non profit health sector great strides could be reached.

Culture and Global Health

Health is a universal concept. It is something which binds us all and connects us and makes us whole. Yet one cannot forget that health has various interdisciplinary aspects inherent within its context, and until these disciplines are addressed, one cannot truely address health matters. One such matter which comes into mind is the concept and importance of culture. Culture binds a group of individauls together who have been brought together by family, religion, ethnicity or particular location. A particular culture can arise from a group of individuals who chose to spend a considerable amount together in a specific type of activity or behavioral pattern. Perhaps this too is a very limited definition of culture symbolizes in society, especially to certain individauls. Therfore, when dealing with disease culture is important. integral even. in order to maintain cultural relevance and sensitivity is perhaps one of hte hardest tasks of propogating care yet this sensitivity and relatedness is essential in order to build relationships of trust and respect not only among a patient and a health care provider but in the health care bussiness and industry as a whole.
I think that my thesis will potentially focus on this very topics. The importance and relevance of culture in the medical practice especially in regards to specific diseases. I think I will study case studies from various countries and research on thier practices. Their percpetion of medicine and how the western perception of medicine compares and contrasts with that of other cultures. Furthermore with a disease like HIV, it will be fasicating to study the implications of cultural practices among individauls who are affected by the disease. Are there poeple who are cured with concoctions proposed by local medicine men, and if not, what does one trained in western medical practices do in order to respect cultural practices while attempting to respect the rights of individauls to receive medication which exist outside of cultural norms.

The Wives of International Graduate Students: Session 3

Each week I await for this day. I wait to meet new women and listen to them talk about thier lives and thier children. I am particularly curious about what their experiences have been like in a new country. I have the feeling that when one comes to the US at a younger age, he or she is able to adapt to the new culture. Whereas if one come here after thier teenage years they are still very much grounded in thier own cultures and traditions. All of these women have husbands that work for the unversity. However becasue most of the women are on a depended visa tehy are not able to work nor go to school. When quesitoned about thier choice of actvities, many women showed a vast interest in reading. Some saif they enjoyed reading romance novels and I agreed with them. A women confessed she loved romantic tragedies because they were quite touching and some even made her cry. Sometime I wonder what it is that makes these women happy. Whenever asked about thier happiness, they usaully talk about thier husband and their families. They do not seem to identify themselves indivuadually but are more concerened with the greater good of everyone. Some mothers are not completely able to participate in the class due to the fact that they are paying a lot of attention to thier chidlrne. A women expressed her desire to travel, but later mentioned that she couldnt due to the fact that seh had a little boy. Sylvia, the instructor, repleid by saying that despite the fact that young children can be hard to handle in trips one should not travel becasue of it. She reflected on her own experiences of taking trips with her chidlren even when they were very little. She explained that children learn in these journies, and ,many places are geared towwards chidlrends activities.

The Wives of International Graduate Students: Session 2

Each meeting provides its own meaning. And with each meaning, I feel like I know a little bit more not only about the women in the group but also about myself. Today I would like to take the time to describe some of the women I work with. Each one is so charming in thier own way that when it comes time to leave I find myself not wanting to leave thhis group of women that I feel very much close to. Although I know the names of most of the women, I would like to keep it annoymous in order to protect thier thoughts and thier own privacy.The lady that sits beside me is from Iran. She has been here with her husband for three months and is very much delighted to come to English classes. She speaks very well english but sometimes has trouble with idioms and slangs. She intently listens to Sylvia, the instructor, and writes in a bright red pen. I have gotten very fond of this particular lady. Every time I explain somehting to her, she is overjoyed and thanks me with all her might and heart. I was delighted when I got a chance to meet both her and her husband at the street fair. It was nice interacting with her outside the classroom and getting to know the wonderful person that she is. The lady that sits across from me is from Germany. She has really curly blond hair and is always on or before time for the class. She is very proficient in English but she too has trouble with the numerous idioms that Americans use. She rides along on her bike every morning and talks of Germany frequently. SHe expresses that she likes it here, but she wishes the air were cleaner. There is a Mexican woman that has come two times during my whole service learning experience. She usually sits on the floor behind the tables and takes care of her little son. When asked about her likes or dislikes, she talks about her husband's likes and dislikes, and does not ever refer to herself individually. When asked about her opinion about living here. She soft spokenly responds that her husband has a good position here and a place like this would provde a good education for her children. Never have I once heard or seen this lady refer to her individual needs. WHen i first met her, I was rather shocked that there were still women that dedicated their whole lives to thier families. It made me wonder if I was ultimately the antithesis of this woman, and was that a good or a bad thing. As I listened to her talk of her devotion to her family, I thought of my devotion to a career in medicine. I began to ponder whether I was selfish not to want a family until I was 30, or perhaps it was her expreinces that made her want a certian way of life, and my experiences that shaped my way of thinking.

The Wives of International Graduate Students: Session 1

Today was a very special day for me. I got the oppurtunity to listen to the women intently as they answered some of my questions. I told Sylvia it was my second last day doing service learning, so she game me the wonderful oppurtunity to question the women in the meeting. I asked them about how they felt regarding accepting a new culture and traditions, coming from a very different background. I further went to tell them that I myself still have a hard time trying to assimilare myself into the American culture, and what thier experinces have been. I was very eager to see that many women wanted to answer my quediotns. A lady from Taiwan disccused that her seven year old daughter knew very good english having been to the elementary school in Montegommery county for the past few months. She went to describe how difficult it was for her to teach her duaghter about the Taiwaneese culture and tradition, when her dauther was constantly being influenced by American pop culture. SHe stressed that her daughter was forgetting taiwanense slowly, making it harder for the mother to communicate with her own child. Another woman described her own loneliness in a foreign country. SHe talked about her fear in bieng in a new country in which she was not very familiar with the language and was of different ethinicity. SHe was afraid that people were ignoring her becasue of the lack of her ability to speak proper english, and perhpads for being Korean. SHe admitted that she at times still feels alienated in this society beucase of her supposed lack of english proficiency. It was very ironic that the Arabic women expressed that she was very happy and found a good communtiy to live and she her troubles with. She went to describe the fact that she had a storng community of friends and that she felt very welcome in this country. Although I would have percienved that perhaps people woul quesiotn her about her hijab and the conservatism in thier culture, but she seemed quite well adapted to a culture that was quite opposite of her own more conservative society.

Kolkotta

the cotton sticking to my skin
the half melted ice cream
the crinkled skin of the old man in the corner
the smiles of the children in the streets
the non lane lanes
the optionary red lights
the bigness of it all
the smallness of life
puppies and kittens
dirt hunger and fear
lack of emotion
abundnce of emotion
tired hands
worn out feet
old chappals
rocky rikshws
the beauty parlors
the slums of the city
school buses
school uniforms
tiffin lunches
undried clothes
warm breeze
humidity
comfort
suffocation
isolation
sadness
lost and confused
stuck
helpless
used and abused
late night indian movies
glorified indian channels
gucci armani, the "beggers" stop
lack of food
hunger
anorexic
malnutrition
pain death and disgust
disease
the smell of phenol

Why pursue public health?

I want to change the world. I find that it is so easy to become caught in a world which often times seems unfair, judgmental and untrustworthy. We live in world where people are dying for numerous reasons, many of which, they shouldn’t be dying for. I, therefore, feel a strong affiliation to all individuals in our global community and think that we all have a vested responsibility in making this world a better place. It is perhaps lofty to believe that one can change the world, yet if everybody felt that they could, the world in which we live today would be different

Why choose public health of all disciplines? Public health, itself, implies the health of a population. I strongly feel that the health of a population is often times linked very intimately to the health of an individual and that public health officials are specifically needed in order to establish partnerships and relationships among specific health care provider groups which facilitate care. It is with the collaboration of population and individual based care that the need of the greatest amount of people can be met. Public health also proves to be an exciting field which is rapidly expanding. A public health degree essentially is able to supply students with tools in order to plan, evaluate and implement health projects on a larger population scale. Hence, my undergraduate major, faculty within the University of Virginia, the important relationship which exists between service and health, the essential tools which this program is able to provide, the novelty of the program itself as well as the importance of a broad culturally conscious foundation all serve as reasons why the BA-MPH degree is of great importance to me.

Majoring in Infectious Diseases in Developing Countries allows me to see the world of health from a completely different, context driven, perspective. My desires for creating my own major are very much in line for my desire to have the opportunity to participate in this graduate program. My major essentially looks at disease from a broader context and allows the combination of a science background fused with a liberal arts enriched program. My aspirations for the major have been focused on looking at disease from a socioeconomic, cultural and economic perspective, and highlights the fact that often times health is governed by various other factors which may not directly be linked to health care per say. To elaborate, my major establishes the importance of interdisciplinary and creative solutions which are necessary for health care problems. I strongly believe that this education process has been integral to the growth of me as an individual as well as a student. As an individual, I feel that my course of study has clarified my future purpose. As a student, I feel a great inclination to go to my classes and finish my coursework because I thoroughly enjoy the process. I feel that this graduate degree will reward me with similar feelings of happiness and academic fulfillment.

I have always deeply desired to invest in an education and career path which keeps this particular goal in mind. Before one can ponder why service itself is so important, it is important to question why health itself is integral to the quality of life. Firstly, one’s health is deeply associated with one’s overall wellbeing. An individual who is not healthy may not be able to work, pursue their aspirations, or complete simple tasks independently. The positive state of the health of an individual allows him or her to function not only in daily simple activities but to engage in a more complex role that the individual plays in society, at work, as well as in the home. Health, therefore, is so deeply connected with an individuals overall ability to function and conduct their lives independently and securely, that I strongly feel that it is a field which desperately needs more individuals from all sectors and aspects. Health and service are also deeply associated together in various ways. Because health is so deeply connected with the individual’s ability to complete simple as well as complex tasks, the service aspect allows a health care worker to facilitate the lives of the individuals who are not able to independently live their lives due to some health conflict. Therefore, this line of service is particularly intriguing and fascinating as it addresses a basic need, and facilitates the lives of various individuals at a very integral level. It is the connection between service and health which deeply draws me to this line of work. Public health therefore facilitates this relationship by extending the health care services from an individual to a population. The extent and impact of this form of service holds various promises for the future of health care. Furthermore, public health initiatives often times focus on preventative medicine vs. the more traditional treatment based medicine, making this aspect of this field particularly fascinating. This approach deeply appeals to me as it not only is often times more cost efficient to invest in preventative initiatives, but these programs often help save and facilitate the lives of various individual nationally as well as globally.

On my journey as an undergraduate, I have discovered that my goal in life is to facilitate the lives of individuals who face dire conditions due to socioeconomic and/or cultural reasons from a health conscious standpoint. Although I have been having many challenges in sorting out how exactly this facilitation should take place, I strongly believe that this degree will provide me with the strong foundation which will be the building blocks both for my educational as well as career initiatives in the future. Because the foundation will be based on a fairly interdisciplinary curriculum, this degree will prepare me for various fields explicitly and implicitly related to health for future opportunities. A public health degree also encourages an individual to see the bigger picture. One is encouraged to put any health situation in a larger context which allows one to appreciate and analyze the intricate relationships which exist between health and various other aspects of the lives of individuals. This degree also holds promise as it has wide applications and can be sufficiently utilized in any future academic endeavor as well as career path.

Additionally, my interest in this field of study is also deeply vested in my deep belief that public health scholars are able to facilitate the much needed communication and collaboration between the disciplines of law, medicine, and business. The novelty of the program itself further encourages me to be involved in it as I feel that it is able to change the most at this stage. A new program would potentially be more open to various options and initiatives potentially suggested by students. Recognizing that this program is very new, I feel that I would also provide a valuable contribution to the program in various ways. I hope to transform and/or hone my passions towards initiating partnerships with international as well as national organizations which deal specifically with public health. I find that my undergraduate degree in Infectious Diseases in Developing Countries, will allow me to further hone my education towards a path which not only deeply fascinates me but towards a path which will allow me to contribute in some fashion to the overall program. My undergraduate educational experiences thus far indicate my drive for taking leadership and initiative

Hence, a public health degree, therefore, offers individuals the toolkits for evaluation and research, a broad foundation of health in a larger context, as well as the ability to collaborate, initiate, and maintain partnerships not only locally but also internationally. Furthermore, it allows one to put any health situation in a socio-cultural and political context, which is often times integral to truly understanding and appreciating a health care situation. The degree also provides a strong foundation for any career path as it focuses on honing skills rather than investing only on specific results. Additionally, the opportunity to collaborate and work with various individuals who are passionate in the same field allows one to establish mutually enriching strong relationships and partnerships with other individuals within the masters program.

Major Proposal: Infectious Diseases in Developing Countries

Abstract: The objective of this interdisciplinary major is to look at infectious diseases from a microscopic to macroscopic scale in developing countries. In order to attain this goal, one must initially become familiar with the diseases, which are currently prevalent in the world. These diseases and infections should be well researched and understood before further work can be done. Not only is it important for one to learn the details and manifestations of these diseases, but one must also keep in mind the preventative measures or the potential preventative measures for these conditions. Macroscopically, it would be fascinating to study the spread of disease in various populations through behavioral and/or cultural signals. It is also important to consider cultural and behavioral conditioning within a society that is affected. Finally, one must also keep in mind the global health care system when dealing with infectious diseases. These global concerns range from ethical issues to political ones, as a nation’s political state can often times be a deciding factor for the amount of allocations and resources which are available for a particular health care problem.

Proposal

In analyzing any health concern one must consider all aspects of the problems at hand. This includes a series of logistics, policy, as well as the society that is in question. In order to assess the context of which the problem lies, one must have a thorough knowledge of the problem and the steps that one should take in order to eradicate this problem. The potential courses for this interdisciplinary major provide a strong foundation by which an individual is able to take courses in politics, ethics, biology and philosophy. These courses compiled together from a diverse array of disciplines provide a backbone for a future that holds the promise of much involvement in the current global health care system. This major also exposes an individual to a series of disciplines which are very much intertwined, yet no other present major offers these array of courses in this particular fashion. The importance of this major’s creation lies in the fact that infectious diseases are becoming a growing problem in the global health care arena. However, individuals who wish to be part of the aid for this problem, must not only have the proper scientific knowledge about the conditions involved, but they must also be capable of considering other issues of societal constraints, politics, and resources which are available.

The fusion of a liberal arts education with a science-based education provides a comfortable balance that is ideal for any individual planning to have a career in the professional world. The science courses the individual will be taking through this major will allow him or her to learn of the various diseases affecting the developing nations along with preventative measures, which can be taken. The information provided from this part of the curriculum will provide a vast background by which one is able to make judgments and take actions pertaining to the current problem in question. The politics courses allow one to understand the political climate of these third world nations and the environment and societies, which are effected by a particular disease. Having a political backdrop will definitely enrich an individual’s education, as it will provide a certain context in which one is able to consider other factors, which also play a part when attempting to aid a health care crisis. Courses from the discipline of religion and philosophy have been chosen as they both serve to provide further knowledge of the cultural influences, which may play a factor in a particular society as well. The ethics courses chosen serve as a link between the different disciplines as it deals directly with the diseases involved yet at a level that is more concerned about the society’s welfare.

Because this interdisciplinary major is composed of a diverse array of courses, one must not look upon this diversity as a loss of purpose or pathway. This major actually serves to provide adequate background knowledge and education for an individual who plans to pursue a more specific endeavor in the future. For example, an individual planning to pursue this major would have the ultimate goal of focusing on a particular disease which effects a specific society in its own unique cultural context. Furthermore, this individual having taken the array of courses will be able to focus on a particular disease and evaluate the impacts of this disease both from a scientific as well as anthropological perspective. Although an observer may still perceive this major as broad or general, one must comprehend that this type of background is essential for any individual considering a profession in the global health care system.

Why pursue global health?

Many diseases which affect many developing nations are conditions which can be prevented and controlled with the proper allocation of resources and implementation of proper medical programs. It deeply concerns me that despite the fact that some cures and solutions do exist to these problems, the world is still faced with disease which arise from poverty and unsanitary conditions. It is this disparity between the “haves” and the “have nots” that is most heart rendering and I feel that something needs to urgently be done about this situation. Because I am interested in the field of international medicine, I think that this project is critical for me as it will allow me to get first hand experience in a field which I hope to invest my life in.

I also genuinely feel that the there is a dire need for individuals to investment their time in international projects and any sort of time commitment and project can prove to be helpful to international organizations who are working in preserving the health and well being of individuals around the world. Therefore, I feel that this experience would beautifully fit into my academic and career goals. A project of this caliber will allow me to use the knowledge base which I have gained from my classes in ethics, development and politics and apply them in a real world setting. I also think that a project which allows me to experience some of the situations which were dissected in my various lectures will allow me to appreciate the hidden complexities within each of these various disciplines.

A global health experience would also complement my study of infectious diseases in developing countries which is currently my major. The initial purpose of deriving my major was to analyze the constructs of politics, ethics and society in the context of disease. A global health project will combine all of these disciplines in a format which will be conducive not only to my academic goals but also as a human being. In a world which is driven by so many materialistic incentives and ambitions it sometimes becomes difficult to see beyond oneself and put situations in perspective. A project of this caliber will allow me to put various issues which I have faced in my academic as well as my personal life in perspective so I can learn from even the challenging experiences instead of simply being hindered by them. I sincerely believe that there is also a dire need to be aware of the circumstances which affect us all. It is so easy to get caught in the daily life of school work that one often forgets the deeper importance of why it is so integral to get an education and the value of that education which goes beyond the prospects of a new job. A project of this type will allow me to be further aware of my academic goals and aspirations and will allow me to appreciate the value of my education and real work experience.

Lastly, the disparities in the world are so devastating to the point where it seems like it would be a crime to not attempt any humanitarian effort. I feel like the world we live in and its wellbeing is just as important as the local community which affects us on a day to day basis. A simple matter of distance does not make a location’s problems insignificant and therefore I always want to involve myself in projects which will allow me to do humanitarian work on a global scale as I feel like it is essential to our world community.

Calling

Show me the way and I will follow you

Take me to the path which I am suppose to follow

I know there is a calling I know there is need

I sense it tonight more deeply than anything

Show me the path show me the way

I sense a calling which is waiting for me

I am glad

I am glad I have the power to feel

The power to show emotion

The power to cry

I am glad that I feel for the world

For its pains and agonies

I am glad that I am aware

I have begun to see what many do not see

I am glad that now that I can

I can move further

And be of some use

I am glad that I have the power of words

I am glad that I have the power of my mind

I am glad that I have the power of my destiny

I am glad that the world is the best teacher of all

And I am only a young student at the face of a tough but good teacher

The Girl

I still remember her smile

The way she grinned at me shyly

She loved to smile I think

I never asked her so I don’t know for sure

She would tell me of her dreams

Of her wishes to get away and get out

And I wished so badly I could do something but I could not

She worked so hard

Washed so many dishes

I felt so bad when people were mean

I saw cry and her tears ached me

She had such small hands and feet

I still remember her big smile

I didn’t get to talk to her much

Her work overtook her life

Yet I felt bad

I watched her work so hard

Yet they did not stop yelling

Continued to yell

At times I would lock myself up and cry

Cry because I couldn’t do anything

Why did she have to be here in this way

Why did she have to be in so much pain and agony

She talked about her mom and said she missed her

She talked fondly of her village at home

I saw the sparkles in her eyes

The aspirations dreams the desires

How was she any different from me?

I hope the world will care

The world today

Oh mother earth

I am sorry for the destruction and the pain we have caused

I am sorry for the lost lives

And I am sorry for it all

Where has humanity been lost?

What and who have we turned into

Sometimes I look in the mirror I do not recognize myself

I see the mirror and I see the vanity

When did it all become about being skinny and fashion magazines

When did the rich begin to care more about their pets than the dieing children around the world?

Why don’t more people care?

Why aren’t more people concerned?

I am sorry to all those who stay hungry

To those who don’t have a place to live

I am sorry to those who have lost their loved ones

To those who are ill and cannot speak

What makes me entitled to the life I live?

What makes me entitled to this vanity?

Sometimes I wish I could escape and do something

Although I try I cannot help but feel locked in

Sometimes I feel like the doors of materialism and selfishness are closing in on me

I too flip through the magazines of vogue and wish

But why has this world become so vain

When did we begin to care about fashion more than people?

When did people from another ethnicity become strangers?

I am sorry to those whose dreams never come true

I am sorry to those who are exploited

I am sorry to those who have felt loss and pain

Sometimes it disgusts me to be here and live in this way

Knowing the type of things which are going on

Consuming as much as we are consuming

What gives me the entitlement?

What gives me the right to live this way?

This is the type of thing that keeps me awake at night

I sit here 2 am writing this poetry

But is this also not in vain?

What use it is to write these words with nothing being done

I want to do something

I need to do something

I’m sorry for those who do not have

I am sorry to those who cry

I do not know why but I feel your pain

I can feel your heart aches and your desires

I want to be there

I want to hold you

Console you

And tell you it will be ok

But perhaps it won’t

And often times I know it won’t

Yet I want to sit here and cry for you

Cry for the world

Oh mother earth

I am sorry for the pain

I am sorry for the destruction and the tragedy

I am sorry for the ones who have died in vain

I am sorry for those all in pain

Each day I watch and see

And each day pains me more

How much pain and suffering lies in this earth this very day

How can I continue living in this bubble and not care

How can anyone not care about what goes on today

What have we become?

Are we still humans

Do we still feel and do we have compassion

What happened to the kindness what happened to the love?

What happened to the generosity which lived in all of us?

When did it all become about money and capital

When did we make the transition to the beast world?

I am sorry for the ones whose dreams do not come true

I am sorry for those who die of hunger and malnutrition

I wish there was a way I could make everyone feel

Sense the pain and the tragedy

How not one could be devastated and affected

How can one move on and keep on pretending

I am tired of my bubble I want to escape

I want to do something

I want to change the world today

I don’t know how and I don’t know when

But something needs to be done soon...

I am sorry for those who have lost and loved

I am sorry for those who do not have anyone

I am sorry for those who sleep bare in the cold night

I am sorry for those who have been inflicted by pain and sorrow

I hope that one day things will change

I hope one day that people will care again

I hope one day for the sake of the world that people will care again...

From AIDS to Imperialism: A Critical Analysis of the History of Sexuality from Diverse Perspectives

The concept of sex, sexuality and sexual relations all still remain a matter of controversy. Therefore in order to deconstruct such concepts and truly understand its different meanings and implications for our society today, one must thoroughly analyze the history of sexuality from an objective and an insightful perspective. The six articles chosen specifically address the complicated and intricate nature of not only sexuality but also the method by which it is and was studied. There are certain themes which run parallel in all articles. These themes ground the notion that sexuality in fact cannot be confined solely to one realm or another realm of academic scholarship. Therefore, the study of sexuality demands the attention and scholarly efforts of various different academic disciplines. It is this collaborative approach which leads to the most comprehensive understanding of the history of sexuality. Other themes range from the gender constructions which so deeply define the role of sex in any private or public arrangement to the ignorance, hypocrisy, and ambivalence in certain cases surrounding sex itself. These factors and various others make it very difficult to objectively analyze sex and its deconstruction in various different contexts. Hence, the history of sexuality can only be analyzed and understood only if certain conditions are met. Firstly, sex and sexual history needs to be put a socio-cultural and economic context which is unique to the environment in question. Secondly, only an interdisciplinary approach to the study of sexual nature and relations will be able to suffice this course of academic endeavor. Thirdly, because medicalization of sex is done in a very culture conscious manner it is very difficult but also important to reason if a sexual medical diagnosis is based on physical manifestations or social constructions. Fourthly, sex should be looked upon as a vesicle through which different societies and individuals express themselves, however, it is integral to understand that sex does not hold absolutely direct correlations with any other social phenomenon. Lastly, because the history of sexuality is still very young in the academic context, it is important to consider academic work with some form of skepticism as they often tend to be narrowed perspectives of issues which may affect a much more diverse and extended society. Hence, keeping these objectives in mind, the six articles in questions will therefore be evaluated and analyzed based on how clear and concisely they present their argument; the importance, originality and the interdisciplinary nature of their topic of their topic; along with the overall flow and harmony of the piece which strengthens the integrity of the piece.

One of the first pieces from The Reader: History of Sexuality, the ‘Game Girls of VNS Matrix,’ is utterly fascinating because it completely debunks the notions of gender constructions and identities which are preordained by the constructs of society. This article is especially thought provoking because it probes one to question the specific gender constructions and perspectives in regards to sex and sexuality which are largely governed and strictly controlled by societal rules and regulations of how sex is perceived and practiced. The VNS system is chiefly captivating as it takes a hyper-feminist approach of taking charge and control of a fantasy world which is empowered largely by females. This too is an intriguing idea as the players who hope to succeed only win the game if they identify themselves as gender less. This loss of gender itself empowers being female as it does not constrict or confine females to one particular prototype which is assigned by society. The article presents gender in a fluid scheme where males and females are both not only, sexual objects of pleasure but are also functional objects of power in their own respective realms. The originality of this article and the way the article presents the material is unconventional yet entrancing. Because the content itself is quite alluring and far from ordinary, it is easy to distinguish this article among the others. The incorporation of various scripts from within the game into the article also serves as one of the key tools to making this article particularly engaging and enthralling. By incorporating the actual script into the article, it serves to hold the readers attention to the very end without losing purpose or motive within the article itself.

The other two articles from ‘The Reader’ which are ‘AIDS and the Discursive Construction of Homosexuality’ along with ‘Regulated Passions’ both address the societal implications of the medicalization of sex itself. Even though medicine is often considered to be a hard science, the study of sexuality and sex itself challenges the previous paradigms of medicine. Specifically two articles directly address this matter from two different perspectives. Primarily, the AIDS article brings to attention how HIV was initially classified as a ‘gay’ disease. The article extensively discusses the seriousness by which even the medical practitioners clearly associated AIDS with being homosexual. Furthermore, the article also constructs the notion of how homosexuality itself was considered a “disorder.” This claim clearly illustrates the impact of socio-cultural influences on medicine. These socio-cultural implications can also be seen in the ‘Regulated Passions’ article which addresses the fixation of classifying every behavior outside of the social norm as “abnormal.” It addresses how any behavior which deviates from the heterosexual norm is considered a disorder.

The content in both of these articles present fascinating intertwined relationships between medicine, sex and society. However, the presentation of the content itself suffered for various reasons. For instance, the ‘Regulated Passions’ article tended to be both redundant as well as unclear in certain parts of the article. The argument which was initially clear became cloudy and distorted due to the discussion of the career differences of sexologists and addiction specialists. Although one can see the importance of this distinction, it also leads one to wonder if it is more important to talk about the individuals who are being “regulated” or those who are doing the regulating. The article is unclear in identifying a clear relationship between those who are seeking help and those who attempted to appease the situation. The AIDS article, in contrast, is perhaps one of the strongest among the six as it presents issues in a manner which is very perceptive and insightful. The interdisciplinary nature of the article itself is also quite impressive. The writing style is clear and orderly as the arguments are in harmony with each other.

In summary, the three articles from A Reader: History of Sexuality are chosen for various reasons. Firstly, all of the three articles possess originality. For instance, the ‘AIDS and the Discursive Construction of Homosexuality’ article sheds light on how homosexuality was isolated in the late 1970s not only because of its own nature, but more so because of the political and socio-cultural factors such Watergate, a recession, and a rising of divorce rates. Hence, homosexuality was isolated and identified as the antithesis of heterosexuality and was as a result associated with promiscuity along with other lose moral standards as well as with the utter loss of family values. Even though much hostility still exists in relation to homosexuality, this article sincerely sheds light on why and how these stereotypes were and are constructed in a society. The ‘Regulated Passions, ’the weakest of all six articles, is chosen because of the nature of its topic. It draws light on the fascinating notion that sex must be regulated to the heterosexual norm. Furthermore, if sex is not regulated to this norm, it is therefore classified as a disorder and help should be immediately consulted. The weakness in this article particularly stems from the presentation of this article which is somewhat disorganized and tends to drift off topic. The third and final piece which discusses the VNS matrix is by far the most shocking of the three. Because of the provocative nature of the article, the article illustrates the keen sense of intelligence and creativity of an individual who is able to come up with such an idea in the first place. It also generates an appreciation for the actual author of the article who presents the piece in such an engaging and impressive manner. The originality of discussion as well the authors agency within the context of the arguments both serve as functioning units of sound analysis of a body of work.

This authorial agency and control can also be felt very strongly in the first article from the online journal which discusses sexuality under the Nazi regime. Before beginning the discussion of the functionality of sex in the Nazi regime, it is important to put sex in particular socio-cultural context. Because often times it is not realized that a specific socio-cultural, political and economic construct is integral for the analysis of any social phenomenon, one may risk making assumptions and drawing grossly inaccurate conclusions. The author of the Nazi article successfully paints a picture of the Nazi regime which views sex for only its functional purposes of producing “superior” children as well as a means for the soldiers to gain “vigor” in the battlefield. This established social construct is critical in the article as it provides a backdrop on which sexuality within the Nazi regime is further understood.

The Nazi article is also very keen in pointing out the gender roles which are respectively played by men and women, as well as how these roles relate to sex. For example, the author cleverly presents a situation where both male and female sexualities are de-individualized and sex, as a result, serves as more of a communal means to an end rather than a pleasure source. Although the author does not explicitly state these nuances in the article, the manner in which the author presents the information alludes to this phenomenon.

Another nuance is seen in the second article from the online journal which discusses the impact of imperialism in the regulation of sex in Sierra Leone, West Africa. This article too, clearly and successfully addresses the sociopolitical climate of the British colonizers. The article very succinctly addresses disparities within the British colonial system from one area of the world to another. However, it also addresses that these very disparities are done intentionally in order to allow for the growth and flexibility of the empire. The author of the imperialism article addresses the lack of perspective in the presented piece, and discusses the limitation of information which allows one to understand that the article is based on British perspectives only. This limited the scope and effect of the article as the main subjects within the article itself, who were the prostitutes and the individuals who actually resided in Sierra Leone, were all ignored. Nevertheless, it is respectable for the author to acknowledge the lack of perspective and present the article in a manner which is objective to the extent it can afford to be.

Both of these articles are similar in that they use sex for a very specific purpose. For instance, Nazi Germany uses sex as a means of producing “superior” offspring and increasing the “strength” in soldiers. On the other hand, the British colonizers present West Africans as over sexual beings that were savages and therefore justified their imperialistic entrapment and their refusal to implement communicable diseases laws. These two articles are different in that Nazi Germany completely internalizes the sexual system in order to suit its needs where as the British system does not. The British imperial system, in contrast, decided not to pass communicable disease laws because of certain external reasons such as financial limitations for example. To elaborate, the British regime did not invest a great extent in a health care system, which makes it understandable why they would be unlikely to explicitly support and implement communicable disease prevention initiatives. The Nazi regime completely internalizes the sexual system as both males and females are expected to have sex for its very functional uses. This external and internal nature of the functionality of sex allows one to notice the distinct nuances between the two circumstances.

In terms of scholarship, the Nazi regime article proved to be a stronger candidate than the Imperialism article for one main reason. The Nazi regime article was presented in a clear manner through out the article as it presented ideas in a systematic and controlled approach. Although the thesis for the Imperialism article was strong, the article tended to be superfluous and therefore lost its initial affect.

The last article from the online journal discusses sexual education directly. This article was specifically chosen in order to enforce that fact that one cannot discuss sex in terms of medicine without stressing the importance of sexual education above all other public health parameters. The article brought to attention the duality of sexual knowledge itself by identifying the potency of its knowledge as well as its devious roots. The article stresses the fact that although some adults felt sexual education was integral, others saw it as a means of corrupting the youth. This delicate relationship which exists between sexual knowledge and sexual activity is integral to understanding how a particular society feels about sex. The manner in which this article is organized and presented proves to be very affective. The article addresses a very integral point which sheds light on sex education and its opposition. This very topic serves to draw a reader in as it directly relates sex to not only society but also to education and medicine. The interdisciplinary approach once again proves to be one which brings much thought provoking insight and enlightenment to the piece.

The online pieces differed from the ones in the book as they seemed to lack as much agency and control which the authors of most of the articles from ‘The Reader’ possessed. Although the articles online were thoroughly interesting, the presentation of ideas was done much better in ‘The Reader.’ For instance, the article about the imperialism in West Africa from the online journal suffered similar symptoms of lack of control and agency as the “Regulated Passions” article. Both articles begin with very strong and concise beginnings however both indicate an inclination for various minute details which takes away from the whole piece of the work. Although, the Imperialism article does address the lack of perspective with which the author is writing, this then draws attention to the fact that perhaps the author is drawing many conclusions which may or may not be true especially because the article was written purely from British sources which were available. Since much of her position is rather critical of the role of the British in the Sierra Leone case, it is curious that the author assumes so much decisive knowledge which the British may not have expressed explicitly.

The imperialism article in the online journal also strongly contrasts to the AIDS article and VNS matrix article in ‘The Reader’. Both the articles from ‘The Reader’ possessed an elegant style of writing and presented their argument in a delightful and cleverly constructed manner. Because all the articles were compared one to another, it quickly becomes clear that the two articles from the reader are far more organized and succinct than the Imperialism article. In addition, The ‘Regulated Passions’ being the weakest of the articles in ‘The Reader,’ is fairly weak compared to the Nazi article. These two articles also present a strong contrast as the Nazi article commands the reader’s attention and stays on point where as the ‘regulated passions’ seems less focused and more off point in discussing sexual relations.

In comparing and contrasting various different articles, it becomes clear that originality, clarity of argument, the overall harmony of the work, along with the functional importance of the body of work all serve as imperative assets in any piece of academic work. Hence, it is not only important to draw insight and value upon the different ways the arguments within the articles have been presented, but it is also important to draw certain parallels within the articles themselves.

Because of the nature of sexuality itself, the academic environment of this discipline demands that the author draw certain conclusions even if those conclusions are not clearly seen in action as demonstrated specifically in the West Africa article. Sexuality therefore poses to be an extremely challenging course of study as it is hard to find many sources of hard facts. Furthermore, so much of the realm of sexuality occurs in the private sphere, which makes it harder to deconstruct this phenomenon in hindsight. Hence, even though scholars do their best in finding sources to support their work, the limited number of sources, in many cases, represents a very narrow range of scope and perspective when a large populous still remains silent and unrepresented. Therefore, all the articles successfully deconstruct sexuality from a socio-cultural and political context. The articles allow individuals to partially understand the intricacies of sexual nature itself which constantly continue to change and affect the sexual paradigm. However, it is integral to keep in mind that these perspectives represent a very small percentage of the populous that have been directly affected by the social phenomenon known as sex.

Book Review: A Perspective in Development

In the book, A Perspective in Development, Raana Haider presents the fascinating and intertwined relationships between women and the socio-cultural and economic roles which they play and are expected to play in society. Haider’s perspective is specifically poignant as she brings importance to the fact that although modernization may have occurred, this may not have had a direct correlation with the improvement of women’s lives. Therefore, Haider not only recognizes the grave gender divisions which still exist despite various changes in society, she also identifies other means by which development among women can be measured. The construction of gender within a society serves to function in the marginalization of women and this phenomenon specifically manifests itself in terms of development, work and education, among other sectors.

Haider begins the book with an intricate discussion about development and the means through which it is measured. These measures are specifically helpful as they go beyond the simple assessment of mortality and morbidity rates to looking at a range of factors such as health, migration, nutrition, credit, work environment, and food security among others. She illustrates the fact that ‘feminization of poverty’ has occurred specifically because women are sidelined both in the development process as well as otherwise. The trickle down effect of development which still plays a large role in most countries, Haider claims, only further serves to increase the dependency of women on the male members of society. Haider presents her argument in a systematic and organized fashion as she not only illustrates the different approaches to mainstream development which have been pursued, but she also deconstructs these methods of development which helps to point out why many mainstream development processes serve to further entrap women in a cycle of dependency.

In the next section of the book, Haider elegantly distinguishes the difference between gender and sex and how the manifestations of gender have graver consequences on females than they do for males. Hence, her main argument is that development needs be perceived through a gendered lens so that it functions to not only include women in the development process but also functions to recognize the fact that women are inherently a part of the development process itself. She strongly supports her main argument sufficiently by making the claim that because men and women have to live up to different social and economic expectations; these very expectations serve to entrap women in a cycle of dependence. For example, the household labor which is done by the female is completely discounted in contrast to the field work a male is performing. This very divide in the division of labor and how this labor is rewarded, serves to isolate women from economic empowerment as their role in labor is not rewarded in the same aspect as a male. Although Haider makes various intriguing points in her discussion, it is essential to recognize that her assessments have been made previously by other individuals who have also analyzed gendered development. Haider’s argument therefore serves to further enlighten the existent knowledge in gendered development but does not present a completely novice argument. Perhaps, this is justified as the role of women have been so ignored in the process of development that reinforcing and reinstating how gender roles have impacted the socio-economic status of women is integral to truly understanding and appreciating the role of women in this society.

Haider’s strongest asset in her writing is conceivably her ability to draw connections within the realm of development and illustrate how these cultural and economic factors have affected women and their role in society. For instance, the next section discusses women and self image. A correlation is established between women who lack economic empowerment and those who seem to consequently suffer from low self confidence. She specifically supports this point by using case studies from women in Mexico. Haider identifies that this happens for various reasons. Firstly, the men in the lives of these women may have a negative impact as they may be both emotionally as well as physically abusive. Such situations can obviously lead to a dramatic loss of self esteem and self worth. Secondly, financial empowerment is so intricately attached with the quality of life that women solely identify confidence or, happiness with self, distinctly with the accumulation of wealth. The women therefore perceive their very dependency as a sign of weakness and a loss of self.

This loss of self esteem may be tackled with the access to education; however, Haider discusses the notions of why many societies are apprehensive of the education of females. Haider establishes the fact that many individuals associate education with liberation and view liberation for women as “dangerous.” This very false notion already leads one to assume that communities would rather choose to isolate their female children than to give them an access to education.

Hence, the ‘feminization of poverty’ has occurred specifically because of the gender construction which isolates females and controls their access to education as well as financial empowerment. Haider’s arguments are practical and sound however lack in originality as they have been discussed in development discussions at a previous point. Haider does not present her work with constancy and switches from presenting her work from one format to another repeatedly. This discrepancy in style from one section to another somewhat leads to a disconnected overall piece. However, her passion and enthusiasm for the subject can be clearly felt through out the piece and it is this passion which propels the reader to be engrossed in the piece. This piece is only one of the arrays of pieces which deconstructs the reasons why women are integral part of development and debunks the notions of perceived gender equality which many development projects and/or theories claim to establish.

Preparing for a Pandemic: The Ethical Considerations of Allocation and Intervention

The threat of a pandemic which may weaken much of the population is one of the greatest threats from a health care stand point. In order to protect a population from a pandemic, health officials need to take various steps. Initially, development of new vaccinations should be updated as viruses like influenza have a fair rate of mutations which make certain strands immune to previous vaccinations. Secondly, an efficient allocation scheme needs to be devised in order to properly ensure that affected individuals are provided proper measures for controlling the persistence of the condition.

There are certain ethical conditions which need to be analyzed in order to determine who is eligible for these vaccinations in a situation where vaccinations need to be allocated based on certain factors. The considerations which are often used are factors such as age and health. This type of blind categorization leads to various obstacles. First of all, it clumps individuals in numbers. An individual’s age is a very small component of what makes up an individual. Therefore, having a vaccination allocation program strictly based on age may allocate vaccinations to individuals who may be young but are not in the condition to benefit from the vaccinations. Secondly, individuals who are very close to the age mark ranging from a few days to months will come into question as the core reason for denying care for these individuals would be based on a mere matter of a few days. Health may be a more suitable method of allocation as individuals who have the most potential to gain from the vaccinations would be given these measures. However, this too brings about certain ethical considerations. Firstly, basing factors on health basically isolates the individuals who are not considered in this category as not only are they subjected to their own particular condition but they are also being discriminated in a larger sense. Therefore using age and health, may offer easy measures of intervention, nonetheless, this type of blind clumping leads to the isolation and mistreatment of individuals who for whatever reason are not encompassed in the “will get vaccination” lot.

A pandemic outbreak will also bring various other ethical issues into question. An individual’s right to privacy may not be respected in order to protect the “greater good” of other individuals. A health care official in a crisis faces the challenge of determining the importance of treatment for other patient while considering his or her own protection from the infection. Although health care officials have an obligation to care for sick persons, an infection which leads to many dire consequences may hinder an official’s desire to work in an environment which threatens his or her own health.

Recognizing that finding a cure for all the diseases which exist today would be a nice solution, however, this would certainly not solve all the complexities of disease which will continue to exist despite of cures. There is likelihood that even if all the disease of today’s world may be cured, another disease or virus may very easily arise and devastate the population again. Although this “disease” can be one which weakens the individuals physically, socially or economically, the diagnosis and treatment needs to be customized in the context of cultural and social factors of the location. Medicine should perhaps be more focused on disease preparedness and prevention rather than eradication. Although one does not have a way of knowing what diseases or how these diseases will come about, massively increasing public health interventions in preventative measures will definitely help.

Women, Abortion and Religion

There exists a certain sense of fallacy in the Roman Catholic position on abortion as the ideologies value the “right” course of action, in terms of religious standards rather than human life itself. This is rather ironic as the very point in question is the life of a fetus. This religious perspective establishes certain secured factors under which abortion may be permissible through “indirect” means when the mother’s life is in danger. However, Daniel Callahan strikes at a fascinating situation where if the mother and the child were both in danger and the mother’s life could be saved by the “direct” death of the fetus, this would be considered immoral. This example is particularly effective in establishing the fact that rules of morality take greater precedence over human life. In this situation, two people die of “natural” deaths, yet the person, who decided not to do a craniotomy, in order to save the life of the mother, is morally not at fault. It is difficult to comprehend why rules are respected more than people, and how “god” would want a human being in this situation to die, considering the fact that the fetus had no chance of living anyway. Roman Catholic tradition strongly emphasizes the saving of a human life above all else, how then does the mothers’ life not count?

Most situations may not pose such an extreme circumstance; however this religious tradition devalues the quality of life of both, the mother as well as the fetus. If an undesired fetus were to be brought in this world, the “living” fetus may be treated horribly by the family which was forced to keep it. For instance, this could cause constant resentment in the family, in which, if the fetus does grow to become older, he or she may be belittled and blamed for coming into the world unwanted. In another situation, where a fetus’s disability may be extremely painful and fairly weakening, the quality of life is once again compromised when the fetus is born and raised.

In a world where women and men are unequal already, banning abortion would only increase these disparities. In this context, a woman’s right to her own body and sexuality give her the same freedoms as a man. A man who engages in sexual activity in an isolated case does not face the responsibility of “killing” a fetus. However, the woman, who out of her own sexual freedom, has also engaged in this activity, has to make a series of life altering decisions about her potential future and her course of action. If it takes two individuals to procreate, why then does the woman face the brunt of it? It is also important to point out that because females primarily face pregnancy along with the social implications of this action, should she not have the right to decide?

Abortion in the Jewish religious context posed more practical constructs towards treating the fetus as a human life. The fetus is not considered a human until a portion of it has been exposed to the world. This construct is far more realistic as once a baby has been living in the womb for nine months, it would seem significant to give the fetus importance. The Jewish perspective also treats the fetus as a part of the woman’s body, and to some extent allowing her to take initiative. This is not to say that abortion is advocated, however because the fetus is not considered a human life separate from the mothers, the mothers actions and lifestyle are given more emphasis.

Keeping in mind both the Roman Catholic perspective as well as the Jewish perspective, there is a lack of female autonomy. The argument remains not in the fact that whether or not fetuses should be “killed,” it remains that the mother should have the freedom to make the choice one way or the other. The Jewish context at least considered the fetus part of the mother, where as the Roman Catholic context seems to give precedence not necessarily to the life of the mother or the child, but more to its own moral constructs. Women still have a long way to go in attaining equality with men, and the prohibition of abortion would only make this wait longer. Furthermore, most women who are ready to become mothers do choose “life,” yet women who are not ready should not be coerced into having a child due to religious principles. Religious principles should be followed on an individual basis, where a mother can choose to keep her child due to her own religious convictions.

Justice and Access to Healthcare

Justice and Access to Health Care

Medicine has entered a new frontier of technology where the possibilities of treatments and procedures seem limitless, yet one often struggles with who is entitled to these treatments. Medical procedures range from physical augmentations based a fixation with preserving youth to circumstances which dictate quality and preservation of life. It is important to look at allocation from both a macroscopic as well as microscopic level in order to appreciate the various nuances which exist in the system as well as to analyze ways in which one could potentially create a more efficient system. Health care systems often tend to favor certain groups over others due to the lack of resources and funding. The integral question in this situation therefore becomes on what basis can one individual really override another for a particular treatment on a national as well as an international scale?

Callahan makes a convincing point about the improvement of quality of life rather than a mere extension of it. This is important to consider as the advancements in technology has led to a fixation in preserving youth. The notion of older age is seen through a negative light as people want to slow down their aging process. The constant strides in medicine in order to lengthen the amount of years one is alive along with the preservation of skin and body in order to prevent signs of aging all indicate a negative perspective towards older age. The disparity is produced by the influence of media which dictates that young is beautiful and that somehow “old” needs to be avoided by all means whether by changes in diet or physical augmentation among other procedures.

it is important to consider all factors before judging someone based solely on their age. This circumstance should nevertheless be conditional on the basis that the treatment is done for the improvement of quality of life of the individual and not merely due to a desire to extend that life.

Although one can sense of what a “fair” health care system would be like based on the principles presented in B & C, it is an idea which is discussed more in theory than seen in practice. Furthermore, one certainly cannot discuss fairness without addressing global implications of health care as we live in a world where our lives are very much intertwined with lives of the people who live in other parts around the world. The notion of a “fair” health care will only hold true when health care systems around the world implement a system by which every individual has some access to some form of care. Therefore, one must keep in mind that although the word “fair” is used interchangeably in many health debates, it seems to be used more in the context of an isolated location and does not take into account the global health care system.

The global health system and its numerous subsystems suffer not only from the scarcity of resources but more so because of the inaccessibility to treatment and medications. Although finding a cure for a disease like HIV/ AIDS is important, it seems that this may not be the solution. Even if a cure was found there is definitely no guarantee that this treatment would be able to reach the numerous individuals who are affected in Sub Saharan Africa and in many parts of Asia. The cure would most easily be provided to individuals who can afford this care and will be allocated to these individuals merely due to their ability to pay for these medications. It seems that the only way the problem of allocation would ever be tackled were if severe adjustments in infrastructure and health policy were made in countries which actually have the means to help out in many parts of the world but chose not do so because they are overly involved in matters which protect their own interest.

A critical analysis of NGOs

Tvedt emphasizes the strengths of nongovernmental organizations by elaborating on their

grass roots level work and their intention of helping the poor through direct means of support in

the community. Tvedt discusses the typical NGO project cycle which assesses needs, implements projects

and then evaluates project performance. MSF actively does this through its organizational structure which

is broken down by core countries which plan, implement and evaluate projects while other peripheral

countries which are responsible for outreach, education and innovative funding avenues. The interaction

and communication between these two sectors is essential as funding needs must to be assessed by the

core sectors so that peripheral sectors can plan accordingly to meet these respective financial needs. Tvedt

also stresses that NGOs are “non-governmental” which takes away the source of mistrust and

apprehension that one usually feels about state led development projects. Furthermore, NGOs are screened

for productivity and efficiency periodically which allows them to evaluate their performance and improve in future projects. Many development projects run by government officials lack this evaluation process and continue with methods without ever testing for their efficiency or productivity. Therefore NGOs provide a means by which development projects can be monitored in order to determine which strategies should be kept while which others should be abandoned.

Another positive aspect of NGOs is that they are most responsive to the people who have dire

need. Their concerns and goals deal with the actual community members who are affected by a particular

crisis situation. This goal allows NGOs to work face to face with individuals in order to provide more

suitable conditions for aid and development. For example, MSF caters to communities who have been

struck by natural disasters, disease, and famine among other circumstances. MSF is usually one of the

first organizations to enter any crisis situation. They are able to provide urgent medical care and

rehabilitate patients immediately after a particular crisis has occurred. This type of aid and investment is a

tangible means of development which proves promising for future projects. Other forms of development

which seem to target the economic and political structures are less efficient and effective in meeting the

needs of the community.

Because NGOs like MSF do grass roots level work, the individuals who are in dire need are getting some sort of assistance immediately. However, even with the best of intentions, NGOs like MSF have many obstacles which they face. MSF is constantly concerned about the availability of funding options which are open to them. Because it is largely funded by public donors, the amount of donations varies from year to year. Since 85% of its funds do come from public donors, MSF is expected to portray a certain image of itself to the donors. Donors usually want to have the benefit of the doubt that the contribution which they are making to the organization will go to where they (the donors) think is most suited. Sometimes there may be a discrepancy between projects which actually have a need in contrast to projects which the donor chooses to support. This constant struggle which exists between assessing the desires of the donors to meeting the needs of the beneficiaries proves to be a major hindrance for NGOs like MSF.

NGOs also struggle with the image which they are trying to encompass. The donor pool for MSF is diversified not only by region but also by language, culture and ethnicity. This indicates that an organization like MSF needs to maintain a mission which suits the needs of donors in all these categories without alienating a particular group. Yet if the mission is too generic and broad, donors may be deterred to contribute. NGOs like MSF are often caught in the middle between creating a mission which satisfies the desires of its diversified donor pool, yet at the same time ensuring that the actual mission is specific enough that donors will contribute. NGOs like MSF may therefore feel obligated to compromise some of the needs of the beneficiaries in order to appease donor wishes.

Another problem faced by NGOs is the rise of other NGOs. For example, MSF would perhaps get much more money from donors if other organizations like “Partners in Health” with similar missions and aspirations did not exist. Although it is encouraging to see the creation of more NGOs , there is also a growing concern that if the amount of donated money is divided among so many little NGOs, the actual money which each NGO is receiving may not amount to a great extent. This becomes a major concern for NGOs which compels them to compete with other NGOs for funding.

Because NGOs need to be constantly concerned about funding and need to find various means and ways to do so, it may undermine their work in a particular community. For example, 13 sectors of the organizational hierarchy within MSF need to work to find funding avenues. If financial security and sustainability were available through other means, these countries could contribute in more effective ways by potentially planning and implementing their own programs.

The development argument is one that brings about much melancholy and somberness in the atmosphere because one can often times feel helpless due to the difficulties and complexities which exist in trying to implement any form of change. Nevertheless, NGOs do serve as the primary way by which many individuals can contribute. In the future, NGOs may be made more efficient by being given a certain amount of funding by the government with the condition that the governments gift, in no way obligates the NGO to act in ways which is biased to the government’s wishes. Furthermore, organizations like the World Bank and IMF should fund a greater number of NGOs far more regularly then attempting to implement project themselves. If more projects were assigned to NGOs, the source of funding would be secured to a greater extent. In addition, projects run by NGOs are evaluated and therefore can be regulated. This would save a lot of money as World Bank will not be compelled to give blindly but instead will consider funding options for qualified NGOs. This form of development may provide a more efficient way for NGOs to function and promote their already noble cause. Lastly, NGOs are only a sector which contributes to development and that true development and change can only be attained through changes in policy and infrastructure which may take far more complicated measures than we have access to. Nevertheless, the grass roots work and awareness is definitely the first step towards a better future.

Social Engineering

“Simplification” refers to a limited scope of vision which isolates one or two variables which are of the state’s interest. This process mainly serves to organize the state into patterns which can be manageable and controlled in order to best serve the state. “Legibility” refers to the ability to manipulate and isolate regions in order to quantify resources. This may range from accounting for the number of inhabitants in an area for taxation purposes to setting up a grid system so that a region’s roads can be easily maneuverable. Legibility and simplification projects often times overlook socio-cultural factors which affect a region due to their narrow focus on their specific goals of economic and/or political control.

The engineers of ‘The German Forestry Project,’ isolate a particular area in order to extrapolate resources for the state’s interests. The forests are simplified and made legible by removing the natural flora and fauna of the location. Furthermore, the trees are standardized according to type and organized in rows for aesthetics and practical purposes. Because the interests of the developers are so limited, they fail to account for the other factors which also play a substantial role in the sustainability of trees. For example, if the trees are standardized, and a type of tree which serves commercial profit is planted in abundance, a disease which affects one of these trees is bound to affect the others. The trees get seriously affected because monocultures tend to be more susceptible to disease. Diversity leads to the sustainability of these trees as they are able to withstand various adversities. Because diversity is disregarded, the project proves to be a failure as the second generation of trees show limited growth and sustainability. Scott finally points out that when the perception of “nature” transforms to “natural resources,” it is bound to get exploited and misused.

The Tanzanian villagization example reflects the other inadequacies of simplification and legibility projects. In this circumstance, state officials attempt to relocate masses of people under the disguise of better farming conditions and medical services among other reasons. Although this project was done under the mask of helping locals, its primary purpose was to set up communal farming in order to satiate the state’s desires. This project proved to be futile and unsuccessful for various reasons. The pilot projects which were set up initially in order to test if the system could be self-sustaining, consisted of ideal conditions. These pilot projects received abundant funding for schools, clinics, clean water, as well as tractors for farming. When the villagers actually moved in, these new villages strongly contrasted with the picturesque image of the pilot villages. These villages lacked clean water and an education system. Furthermore, villagers were not provided with tractors and fertilizers as promised and were expected to farm in poor soil conditions. Many locals began to feel resentment as they felt that they were worse off than their previous condition. Additionally, when Nyerere realized that people were not voluntarily moving, he set up a coercive strategy through which people were moved forcefully. This built further resentment as individuals who had lived all their lives in a particular location were being moved without their permission. The locals rebelled by taking flight, smuggling and engaging in unofficial production and trade which all served to further weaken the infrastructure. In conclusion, the failure of this project was due to the weakness in infrastructure along with the ignorance of the developers towards the locals.

Scott suggests that the inherent problem with all projects is that simplification and standardization leads to a synoptic vision which does not account for all the other factors that affect a location. Furthermore developers are ill prepared for change and test their pilot projects in isolated and optimistic conditions which do not give accurate representations of realistic outcomes. One of the other reasons of failure is that often times developers view local farmers as “backward” and do not account for their wishes. Furthermore, these projects only account for short term goals and do not keep the long term consequences in perspective.

2. “Techne” specifically refers to the tangible and formal methods of acquisition of skills, by which results and processes are standardized and can be adaptable on a larger scale. This method relies heavily on factors of measurability and legibility. “Metis,” the more holistic approach, stresses the importance of experience and the access of knowledge through intangible means. “Metis” is unique to every individual’s own life and practical experience. In an agricultural setting, an individual may devise his or her own method of farming and assess needs according to specific locations and resources. These assessments are done in a manner which produce successful results for one farmer, but may not necessarily meet the needs of another farmer. For example, Scott mentions that the local edition of the Farmer’s Almanac may suggest planting corn after the first full moon on a particular date. However, because the locations of different parts of the world with respect to the moon are relative, a farmer in England cannot rely on these same methods.

An example of the “techne” approach can be clearly seen in the contract farming of chickens. When chicken farmers are faced with the problematic situation of disease and unhealthy conditions in chicken fryers, some farmers approach contract farming. Through this process, the farmers are expected to produce a certain number of chickens who meet specific standards. Additionally, farmers are required to buy a building which can be carefully monitored using standardized methods of feeding and medicating the chickens. This deduces the farmer’s role as it does not give him any initiative to act on his own accord. The intentions of setting up these farms serve more for the purposes of fitting a grander scheme of production and efficiency model rather than the needs of the farmer.

The risk of loss and poor yield allows a farmer to fully invest his powers in attaining the best possible conditions. However, by accepting these chicken farm contracts, the farmer is put more at risk as he is no longer in control of even his own chicken farm. His resources are allocated according to a standardized system controlled by a large contracting company. In this scenario, it can be observed that the modernization of farming may be leading to more efficient technologies. Nevertheless, these benefits may not necessarily be allocated to individuals who produce the output.

Scott sees the gravest problem in development projects as the undermining of the importance of “metis” in state projects. He suggests that a project which incorporates “metis” into “techne” approach would create a more efficient process. “Metis” and “techne” exist in a dichotomous relationship which asserts the need of balance and appreciation of both of these constructs. “Techne” provides the technology and organization needed for a large scale project, where as “metis” is more able to control long term sustainability.

3. The book establishes the integral role of the state in trying to implement simplification and standardization projects. Scott not only addresses the inherent problems with state projects, but he also addresses potential ways a state could go about implementing successful plans. Scott’s main argument is convincing and revolves around the idea that states undercut the knowledge and intelligence of the locals which leads to the very failure of these projects. Scott also points out that the state may not be dedicated to improving the lives of the locals, even though they may have some intention to do so. I find the relationship between intent and outcome fascinating as it seems a regular trend that although developers want to do “good” their results may not necessarily indicate these intentions. Scott writes about the relationships between the state and the locals and often times his perception of intentions deal more so with the state’s need of control rather than its desire for providing service. Nevertheless, circumstances produce complexities as often times the façade of altruism can be misleading and ambiguous. The overall theme of Scott’s work establishes that the officials perceive a region through the spectacles of their own experiences. It is an enlightening process of looking at development because it addresses the potency of the developer’s schema in the way he or she goes about attaining progress. The inadequacies in these projects may suggest that developers have a narrow perception of the world before even going into a project which inadvertently dictates their actions. This skewed perception blurs the vision of the state officials along with the developers, leading to a false notion of knowledge and expertise. This reading among others has not only made me aware of the many inadequacies within the system, it has also made me appreciate the complexities of the state. One would be naïve to see this situation as a black and white matter because so many convoluted relationships dictate state politics and economy that substantial change cannot be implemented without mass internal changes within the infrastructure of these governments.